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The article addresses the impacts of the pandemic on the functional aspects of societies that could potentially shape young persons' social worldviews and pose a challenge to their civic participation in the future. It addresses the questions and reflections that could create barriers for the civic participation of young people: are authoritarian regimes more effective in times of crisis and can the pandemic make young people turn their backs on democracy? Are civic organizations still needed in a pandemic? Are we really equal in the face of the pandemic? Should we trust the authorities or take matters into our own hands? What are online education challenges for group inclusivity, membership and community building?

SummaryIn this article, we analyse the phenomenon of responsibility and its understanding among young people from Visegrad countries (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary). Using the AGA research method, 400 students of the last stages of economic faculties in capital and local universities were examined. The results indicate a personal rather than a social dimension of responsibility. We also found some patterns to depend on the country. Young Poles' responsibility is more related to the subjective dimension, Hungarians' to social, Czechs' to affective, and Slovaks' to moral one.Key words: responsibility, young people, social capital.

This book compares the current status of democracy in selected Eastern European countries. The focus is on young people's attitudes towards and experiences of democracy, including active political engagement. In many of these countries, democracy has been hard-won and may well need to be defended again in the future. The contributors collectively reflect on young adults exercising their civic rights and how they can influence the political system at both formal and informal levels. The chapters present different issues that arise in unique contexts but overall reflect the changing status of democracy and its effects on young people's citizenship activity and education. The volume compares perspectives of three groups of Eastern European countries with different traditions and past histories of democracy and citizenship: Central European countries (Poland, Czech, Hungary); Baltic countries (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia); and post-soviet republics (Ukraine, Moldova). These countries differ in the status given to democracy, citizenship action traditions and education. At the same time, many countries have experienced recent turbulence related to democracy and different kinds of actions by young people. Comparing them leads to conclusions about omissions made in current citizenship education provision and what needs to be done for a better understanding of the needs of citizenship education in these difficult times. This volume will be of interest to students and scholars in citizenship and civic education, sociology, political science and Eastern European Studies.

"This book compares the current status of democracy in selected Eastern European countries. The focus is on young people's attitudes towards and experiences of democracy, including active political engagement. In many of these countries, democracy has been hard won and may well need to be defended again in the future. The contributors collectively reflect on young adults exercising their civic rights and how they can influence the political system at both formal and informal levels. The chapters present different issues that arise in unique contexts but overall reflect the changing status of democracy and its effects on young people's citizenship activity and education. The volume compares perspectives of three groups of Eastern European countries with different traditions and past histories of democracy and citizenship: Central European countries (Poland, Czech, Hungary); Baltic countries (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia); and post-soviet republics (Ukraine, Moldova). These countries differ in the status given to democracy, citizenship action traditions and education. At the same time, many countries have experienced recent turbulence related to democracy and different kinds of actions by young people. Comparing them leads to conclusions about omissions made in current citizenship education provision and what needs to be done for a better understanding of the needs of citizenship education in these difficult times. This volume will be of interest to students and scholars in citizenship and civic education, sociology, political science and Eastern European Studies"--

Abstract
In this article we present a different approach to citizenship research and understanding, with a focus on the citizenship model described by Zalewska and Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz in a study included in this thematic issue of CTL. The model developed by Zalewska and Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz consists of eight types of citizenship behaviour defined in three dimensions: (1) passive citizenship (including national identity and patriotism); (2) semi-active citizenship (civic virtues and loyalty); and (3) active citizenship (political, social, personal and change-oriented activity). A 34-question Citizenship Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ) was used to evaluate students' citizenship behaviours on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Research was conducted in fourteen European countries with a total sample of 4920 students aged 11–12 (early adolescence, 1526 students), 14–15 (middle adolescence, 1675 students) and 17–18 (late adolescence, 1719 students), consisting of 2502 girls and 2418 boys living in cities (2300) and towns (2620). Details of the research procedure and research team and comparison between countries are also presented.

The study explored young people's tendency for cooperation in different social conditions and explanations of behaviour given by them. Cooperation seems to be an important part of citizenship behaviour. Here, it is defined as a tendency to maximize common payoff. According to
the Homo economicus theory, people are egoistic entities and should make rational decisions based on maximizing personal payoffs. According to the conception of Homo reciprocans, people tend to be cooperative only if their perceive partners' behaviour as fair. In the context of contemporary
research, both of these theories over-simplify behaviour, since tendency to cooperate depends on differences in culture and economic development, as well as on situational rules. In the present study, the Ultimatum Game was conducted to explore students' cooperative behaviour (accepting
proposals) as a response to Selfish, Equal or Altruistic offers in three conditions – 'face to face', 'town to town' (long distance, with a partner from another town) or 'country to country' (with a partner from another country). This modification
of standard experiment procedure was unique and allowed to examine the role of situational context. Altogether 1013 students (aged 9–19) from Poland, Spain and the United Kingdom participated in the game as acceptors. Their cooperative behaviour depended on offers made by partners. However,
the patterns were moderated by game conditions: young people tended to cooperate mostly in response to equal offers and in the 'face-to-face' condition and to punish (not cooperate) partners with the same nationality ('face-to-face' or 'town-to-town' condition)
for Selfish offers and foreigners ('country to country' condition) for Altruistic offers.

Abstract
This article explores passive, semi-active and active citizenship among young Ukrainians, empirically revealed using the Citizenship Behavior Questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered to 371 pupils aged 11, 14, and 17–18 years. This empirical study is introduced through a socio-political and educational description of the current situation in Ukraine, as well as some historical background. Citizenship education in Ukraine is taught through all subjects and takes the form of national-patriotic education, which is justified by the prevalent political conditions: namely, annexation of Crimea and war in the east of Ukraine. The peculiarities of higher education in Ukraine are reviewed as well as the results of studies concerning patriotism, citizenship and political participation among Ukrainian youth. For our empirical study we have chosen passive, semi-active and active citizenship as dimensions, and the following sub-dimensions for analysis: national identity, patriotism, loyalty, civic virtues, social activity, political activity, personal activity, and action for change. Boys and girls do not differ significantly in terms of citizenship behaviour in Ukraine. At the same time there are significant differences in some citizenship dimensions and sub-dimensions on the basis of place of residence and age. In general, Ukrainian youth reveal high passive and semi-active citizenship behaivour, but low active citizenship, indicating to us the presence of potential but unwillingness to participate in protest actions for change. Some of the means by which the level of citizenship activity can be enhanced are increasing one's interest in political media and media literacy and preventing destructive media effects. These means can be implemented through media education with special attention to citizenship.

Abstract
The relationship between citizenship activity and economic status is examined and discussed in the article. We refer to the three-dimensional citizenship model by Zalewska and Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz: passive (patriotism and national activity), semi-active (loyalty and civic virtues) and active (political, social personal and action for change). A total of 4920 students aged 11–12, 14–15 and 17–18 years from fourteen European countries were examined using the Citizenship Behavior Questionnaire. The results indicate that economic growth is linked to various forms of citizenship behaviours. The wealth and social development of a country are negatively correlated with passive and active citizenship, which is higher in lessdeveloped states. The rate of economic growth and citizenship activity is bound by a curvilinear relationship. In countries with moderate rates of wealth accumulation, the levels of all forms of citizenship are significantly lower than those in countries with the lowest and highest rates of economic growth. The level of citizenship activity varies according to the level of social inequality: in the most stratified countries, citizenship activity is significantly higher than in countries with moderate and low levels of inequality, which do not differ from one another. Similar correlations are noted for passive and active citizenship. Only semi-active citizenship is lowest in countries with moderate levels of inequality.

Abstract
The Netherlands is a country of diverse, often contradictory and dynamically changing views and policies with regard to civic integration of immigrants. In this context, studying how young Dutch immigrants express their citizenship may provide valuable insight. This research analyses how Dutch youth of immigrant and local origin differ in forms of expression of their citizenship, with a special distinction between immigrants of western and non-western origin. Results of an analysis of a convenience sample of 376 Dutch students aged 10–19 years revealed that immigrant status was related to significant differences between students on several dimensions of citizenship, in particular in its passive forms: national identity and patriotism. National identity was significantly higher among youth who were not from an immigrant origin, while with respect to patriotism both youth without an immigrant origin and those of western immigrant origin scored higher compared with children of immigrants with non-western roots. Children of immigrants from western countries scored higher than youth of non-western descent and native Dutch children on three dimensions of (semi-)active citizenship: intention to vote; action for change; and civic virtues. Study results confirmed the concern that young immigrants of non-western origin in particular struggle with identification with the host country. It did not confirm popular concerns about limited loyalty to the host country or lack of civic engagement among young (second-generation) immigrants. The results of the study should be generalized with caution due to the nature of the utilized sample.

Abstract
In this article we investigate the relationship between different educational systems and the citizenship activity of young people. We refer to a three-dimensional citizenship model developed by Zalewska and Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz: passive (patriotism and national activity); semi-active (loyalty and civic virtues); and active (political, social personal and action for change). A total of 1719 18-year-old students who almost completed their citizenship education at all levels of schooling, from fourteen European countries, were evaluated using the Citizenship Behavior Questionnaire. The results show that citizenship education is most effective when delivered as a separate subject at two levels of the educational system. However, the above does not apply to two types of citizenship behaviour: (1) personal activity, which flourishes when citizenship education is integrated with other subjects and is delivered at two levels of education; and (2) political activity, which is highest when citizenship education is integrated with other subjects and taught at one level only. The analysed models of citizenship education seem to promote different types of citizenship behaviour. Integration of citizenship education with other subjects enhances the willingness to participate in political life. Teaching citizenship using a mixed intensive model (integrated and as a school subject) is associated with higher levels of personal activity, whereas limiting it a school subject contributes to patriotism.

"Situated within the context of "post-soviet times", this book explores young people's citizenship activities and values in three distinct environments: post-soviet union countries, post-soviet union satellites, and countries that were independent of the soviet-union. Its purpose is to investigate the influence of these contexts on the ways young people see their citizenship in what are now emerging democracies. The future of nations depends to a large extent on whether citizens will continue to support existing values and will engage in activities to support those values. Using a framework designed by Kennedy (2006) and further developed by Zalewska, Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz (2011) the study examined the citizenship values of 3794 students aged 11-14-18 from 11 European countries. The main themes of this book includeexploring similarities and differences in citizenship activities within countries and across countries;advancing explanations for these similarities and differences;highlighting the importance of contexts that influence citizenship activities and values; andassessing the extent to which democratic values are reflected in young people's citizenship activities."--Provided by publisher.

Scholars have reported that mental toughness (MT) moderates stress, helps with regaining balance after failure, and promotes mobilizing action. Accordingly, we used the Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48 to explore stage-related MT differences in a sample of 342 teenagers representing
3 stages of adolescence: 11-year-olds (early adolescence; n = 104), 14-year-olds (middle adolescence; n = 125), and 17-year-olds (late adolescence; n = 113), who came from either a large city or a small town. Analysis revealed that although MT increased across the stages
of adolescence, the degree of change varied between subscales of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48: challenge and confidence increased, whereas control and commitment remained unchanged. Moreover, age effects also varied as a function of community size. The findings illustrate the advantage
of using a multi-dimensional model of toughness for better understanding its development processes. Moreover, they could inform the design of training programs aimed at targeting problem behaviors, for example, encouraging attendance at and enhancing academic performance programs.